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Major vegetation groups

The large number of vegetation types and the complexity of considering co-dominant and subdominant vegetation, necessitated the development of a simpler classification for reporting on Australia's native vegetation at national and State/Territory scales. The major vegetation groups were derived by aggregating the vegetation information according to a grouping of major vegetation types from Levels I to VI and other mapped information.

The major vegetation groups classification contains different mixes of plant species within the canopy, shrub or ground layers, but are structurally similar and are often dominated by a single genus.

Each major vegetation group is presented as a fact sheet (see vegetation profile fact sheets ) including general descriptions of each group plus information on:

• distribution;
• change since settlement by Europeans;
• key values; and
• management considerations.

Rainforest and vine thickets

• Closed forests characterised by dense foliage and a large diversity of plant species
• Mostly confined to the wetter areas or climatic refuges in eastern Australia, with some in the semi-evergreen vine thickets of the Brigalow Belt and the monsoonal vine thickets of the seasonal tropics of northern Australia
• Extent varies from a few hectares in sheltered gullies to hundreds of square kilometres in a mosaic, often with wet sclerophyll forests
• Community types include cool temperate rainforest, subtropical rainforest, tropical rainforest, vine thickets, and semi-deciduous and deciduous vine thickets

Rainforests were cleared extensively in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries for high value timbers, dairying, tobacco/sugar cane or other agricultural production.

Eucalypt tall open forests

• Stand over 30 m tall and reach heights of 100 m
• Restricted to all but the wetter areas of eastern Australia from the margins of the wet tropical rainforests of north Queensland to Tasmania, and the south-west of Western Australia, often in rugged mountainous areas
• Typified by a well-developed, often broad-leaved shrubby understorey or sometimes tree ferns
• Mostly found adjacent to, or in association with, rainforest communities

Extensive areas of these communities were cleared for agriculture and grazing early in the twentieth century, particularly where they occurred on flatter topography in areas associated with better agricultural soils. Major areas remain today in crown reserves as state forests or national parks.

Eucalypt open forests

• Vary from 10 m to 30 m in height
• Widespread along the subcoastal plains and foothills and ranges of the Great Dividing Range in eastern Australia; and the subcoastal ranges of the south-west of Western Australia
• Generally have a shrubby understorey which is low to moderate in height, but in drier sites they may have a grassy understorey with scattered shrubs and/or cycads

Clearing of these communities for grazing and agriculture in the major agricultural zones of eastern Australia and the south-west of Western Australia has been widespread. The rate of clearing in these communities by the early twentieth century saw the development of crown reserves for the protection of forests, either as national parks or as production forests, and the establishment of forestry departments within several jurisdictions.

Eucalypt low open forests

• Grow on less favourable sites (e.g. under extreme cold, such as in sub-alpine areas, dryness, heath and steep rocky slopes)
• Can vary from 5-10 m in height
• Eucalypt species may be the same as those occurring in the nearby more favourable sites, which support open forests. In other stands of low open forests the dominant species may include a gradation in species type with change in growing constraints (e.g. the snow gum ( Eucalyptus pauciflora ) in sub-alpine areas)
• Exhibit a variety of subforms, with understoreys ranging from low trees and shrubs to tussock grasses or, in some cases bare ground

Some of this vegetation has been cleared. The remaining restricted areas may be relatively intact as a result of the extremes in site conditions.

Eucalypt woodlands

• Form a transitional zone between the higher rainfall forested margins of the continent and the hummock grasslands and shrublands of the arid interior
• Widespread throughout the mountain ranges and plains west of the Great Dividing Range in eastern Australia and east of the subcoastal ranges of south-west Western Australia
• Includes a series of communities, which have come to typify inland Australia (e.g. the box and ironbark woodlands of eastern Australia)

The eucalypt woodlands have been the most extensively cleared and modified, particularly in the agricultural zones of eastern Australia and in south-west Western Australia. In many regions only small isolated fragments remain, in many instances found only along creeks and road verges.

Acacia forests and woodlands

• Trees are stunted (often less than 10 m); in some areas they can grow to heights of 25 m
• Dominant species include lancewood ( Acacia shirleyi ), bendee (A. catenulata ), mulga ( A. aneura ), gidgee ( A. cambagei ) and brigalow ( A. harpophylla ). The most widespread species are mulga and brigalow
• Climatic conditions are generally dry, hot summers, with cool to warm winters

The mulga and brigalow communities of eastern Australia have been extensively cleared for grazing and agriculture. Mulga communities in the arid interior have not been cleared to the same degree but many areas have been modified by the grazing of cattle/sheep and feral animals, and increased macropod populations supported by access to water from bores.

Callitris forests and woodlands

• Found mostly in a series of discrete regions, notably in the Brigalow Belt, but also in the arid areas in South Australia and in association with mallee communities near the South Australia - Victoria border
• Generally dominated by an herbaceous understorey with only a few shrubs
• Associated tree species include mulga ( Acacia aneura ), wilga ( Geijera spp.), sugarwood ( Myoporum spp.) and buloke or belah ( Casuarina spp.). Associated shrub species include Eremophila, Dodonaea , chenopods such as Atriplex, Maireana, Sclerolaena and grasses such as Triodia, Plectrachne, Aristida and Austrostipa

Extensive areas have been cleared for grazing in the Brigalow Belt and in the Mallee bioregions in particular, but major areas are included in State Forests and other crown reserves in Queensland and New South Wales.

Casuarina forests and woodlands

• Occur primarily on littoral and riverbank sites along the south-eastern, eastern and northern coast of Australia and on rocky sites throughout the continent
• In other inland areas casuarina occurs in association with acacia and eucalypts
• Containing both Casuarina and Allocasuarina genera, these occur in a series of quite distinct communities, notably foredune ( C. equisetifolia ) communities, swamp ( C. glauca ) communities, riverine ( C. cunninghamiana ) and desert ( C. cristata ) communities

These communities have been extensively cleared in many coastal areas for agriculture, or for industrial or urban developments. Areas in the arid zone are subject to modification by grazing of domestic stock and from feral herbivores.

Melaleuca forests and woodlands

• Cover substantial areas in the tropical north but are also found in temperate climates most often in or adjoining coastal or montane wetlands. Monsoonal melaleuca woodlands are found in the Northern Territory and in far northern Queensland on the areas adjacent to the Gulf of Carpentaria and on the Cape York Peninsula
• Dominated by broad-leaved paperbark ( Melaleuca viridiflora )
• In southern and eastern Australia the melaleucas are confined largely to the wetter watercourses and swamps with the paperbarked tea-tree ( M. quinquenervia ) the most widespread coastal species
• In Western Australia the melaleuca forests and woodlands are restricted to pockets in specific sites, such as the swamp paperbark ( M. preissiana) on subcoastal swamp areas and M. rhaphiophylla on creeklines and watercourses

These communities have been extensively cleared on coastal floodplain areas for agriculture or housing near major cities. Extensive areas remain in the tropical north, in particular southern Cape York Peninsula.

Other forests and woodlands

• Diverse group of communities, some of which (e.g. banksia woodland and Leptospermum forests) are comparatively restricted in their extent but may be locally abundant
• Includes a series of mixed communities of the arid zone which are not dominated by any particular species
• Exhibit a variety of subforms, with understoreys ranging from low trees and shrubs, to low shrubs and to tussock grasses

These communities have been extensively cleared in many coastal areas for agriculture or urban uses. Extensive areas remain in the arid zone but are subject to modification by grazing of domestic stock and from feral herbivores.

Eucalypt open woodlands

• Characterised by broad spacing between canopy trees so that in many areas the understorey appears more dominant in the landscape
• Very extensive, particularly in the semi-arid interior and the tropics, and cover many dry inland plains and downs and some rocky outcrops
• Contain many of the eucalypt species that occur in eucalypt woodlands
• Acacia and Ventilago are co-dominants in the northern areas; Callitris and Casuarina in the inland areas and Banksia in the rocky and sandstone areas
• Understorey varies from shrubs, heaths, tussock grasses and hummock grasses. Tussock grasses associated with the open woodlands include Sorghum, Heteropogon, Chrysopogon, Bothriochloa, Aristida, Themeda, Heteropog on and Australiarostipa. Variation in understorey reflects the variety of climatic zones and site conditions supporting these woodlands

Large areas have been cleared in the south east and far south west of Australia for cereal cropping and grazing. In the northern parts of Australia they have been modified by pastoral activities and changed fire regimes.

Tropical eucalypt woodlands/grasslands

• Contains the tall bunch-grass savannas of north Western Australia and related eucalypt woodlands and eucalypt open woodlands communities in the Northern Territory and in far north Queensland, including Cape York Peninsula
• Woodlands include a mix of species- Eucalyptus tectifica (Darwin box), E. tetrodonta (Darwin stringybark), E. miniata , Corymbia foelscheana , C. latifolia , C. flavescens , C. polycarpa , C. nesophila , C. clarksoniana , C. grandifolia , C. bleeseri , C. ferruginea , Erythrophleum chlorostachys
• Savannas and understorey typified by a suite of tall annual grasses (notably Sorghum spp.) but does not include communities in more arid sites where Triodia spp. become more dominant

Much of the occurrence is within Indigenous-held lands and most of the vegetation type is in substantially natural condition except for some grazing pressure, changes in fire regime and weed infestation.

Acacia open woodlands

• Usually occur in low undulating inland areas, with mainly summer rainfall (northern) and winter rainfall (southern)
• Cover extensive areas of the arid zone or drier tropical north mostly with a shrubby or grassy ground layer
• Dominant acacias include mulga ( Acacia aneura ), Georgina gidgee ( A. georginae ), A. tephrina , A. cambagei , A. harpophylla (brigalow), A. peuce and A. papyrocarpa
• The most widespread species is mulga ( A. aneura )
• The ground layers are generally herbaceous or chenopod shrubs such as Atriplex, Maireana, Sclerolaena and grasses such as Triodia, Eragrostis, Plectrachne, Aristida and Austrostipa

Little of this group has been cleared but many areas have been subject to modification by grazing of domestic stock and from feral herbivores.

Mallee woodlands and shrublands

• Grow from lignotubers and are multi-branched trees found in harsh site conditions usually with a flattened canopy which, in windswept coastal areas of Australia, can be stunted or angled
• Located in the winter rainfall belts of semi-arid areas of southern Australia, in south-western New South Wales, north-western Victoria, southern South Australia and south-western Western Australia
• Widespread mallee species include Eucalyptus Dumosa (white mallee), E. socialis (red mallee), E. gracilis (yorrell), E. oleosa (red mallee), E. incrassata (ridge-fruited mallee) and E. diversifolia (soap mallee)
• Eucalypt is the most widespread tree component. It rarely exceeds 6 m in height. Codominants can include species of Melaleuca, Acacia and Hakea in areas such as the Big Desert in Victoria, the Ninety Mile Desert, parts of Eyre Peninsula and in the wheatbelt and southern coastal areas of Western Australia

Mallee communities in Victoria and parts of South Australia have been extensively cleared, with only isolated remnants remaining in some areas. These communities are still widespread in the arid zone of South Australia and Western Australia but are subject to modification by grazing of domestic stock and from feral herbivores.

Low closed forests and closed shrublands

• Characterised by dense foliage in the upper layers and by low stunted species usually between 5 m to 10 m in height and are sometimes referred to as 'scrubs'
• Occur in a range of climatic zones, but many occur within coastal or subcoastal environments dominated by Banksia , Leptospermum and Kunzea species or Melaleuca with a mix of other species. A few occur in alpine environments in Tasmania
• Support a large range of species, partly as a result of their geographical range and partly from the variation in soils and site conditions

They have been extensively cleared in many coastal areas for agriculture or urban development.

Acacia shrublands

• Typified by an overstorey dominated by multi-stemmed acacia shrubs
• Occur mainly in temperate semi-arid and arid regions of Australia, although they also extend into the tropical arid regions of north-west Queensland and eastern Northern Territory
• Occur mainly on extensive undulating plains and downs, low hills and valleys of range country
• Climatic conditions are generally dry, hot summers, with cool to warm winters
• Dominated by mulga ( A. aneura ), gidgee ( A. cambadgei ) and mixed species communities of the central Australian deserts, but it also includes a series of other desert acacia communities
• Associated species include grevilleas, emu bushes ( Eremophila spp.) and a wide range of chenopod species from the Atriplex, Maireana, Sclerolaena genera and Senna spp.

Little of this group has been cleared outside the major agricultural zones, but they have been subject to modification by grazing from domestic stock and feral herbivores, introduction of exotic weeds (e.g. buffel grass) and from altered fire regimes.

Other shrublands

• Dominated by a broad range of shrub species that may include mixed species communities and mosaics of several communities. They do not fit well in other shrubland groups
• Dominated by a range of genera including Allocasuarina (in some States and Territories still Casuarina), Banksia, Bursaria, Dodonaea, Eremophila, Grevillea, Kunzea, Leucopogon, Muehlenbeckia, Persoonia, Thryptomene, Neofabricia, Nitraria, and Melaleuca spp.

This group has been extensively cleared in the agricultural regions and in coastal areas adjoining major cities. In the arid zone, little of this group has been cleared but many areas have been subject to modification by grazing by domestic stock and feral herbivores.

Heath

• Open, closed or mixed shrublands dominated by plant genera typical of infertile or waterlogged sites, generally within the coastal, montane, sandy soils or laterite soils
• Includes stunted (< 1 m tall) vegetation, typified by the family Epacridaceae and also other dense low shrublands in subcoastal or inland environments
• Dominant genera include Allocasuarina, Baekea, Banksia, Calytrix, Hakea, Epacris, Grevillea, Leptospermum, Melaleuca, Leucopogon, Prostanthera, Richea and Xanthorrhoea

The communities have been cleared for sand mining, agriculture and urban development.

Tussock grasslands

• Contain a broad range of native grasslands from the blue grass and Mitchell grass communities in the far north to the temperate grasslands of southern New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania
• Contain many widespread genera including Aristida , Astrebla , Austrodanthonia , Austrostipa , Chrysopogon , Dichanthium , Enneapogon , Eragrostis , Eriachne , Heteropogon , Poa , Themeda , Sorghum and Zygochloa and many mixed species communities

Extensive areas of this group have been cleared and replaced by exotic pasture species. Most other areas have been subject to modification by grazing, weed invasion and land management practices associated with grazing domestic stock (e.g. frequent fire and the application of fertilisers).

Hummock grasslands

• Hummock forming evergreen perennials that appear as mounds up to 1 m in height. In between the mounds or hummocks the ground is usually bare or exposed
• Typified by spinifex ( Triodia spp. and Plechrachne spp.) communities of the arid lands that are characteristic to the Australian outback
• Cover extensive areas either as the dominant growth form with the occasional emergent shrub or small tree (either acacia or eucalypt)
• Also a conspicuous element of other communities (e.g. open woodlands)

Little of this group has been cleared but many areas have been subject to modification by grazing by domestic stock and feral herbivores.

Other grasslands, herblands, sedgelands and rushlands

• Dominated by non-woody or herbal species (e.g. grasses, sedges, rushes, ferns or a mixture of these). The sedgelands and rushlands are often referred to as wetlands communities and support a large range of species, partly as a result of geographical range and partly as a result of the variation in soils and site conditions
• Occur on a range of sites from shallow soils to seasonally inundated areas both saline and freshwater (e.g. sedgelands are located on seasonally or periodically inundated waterlogged and wet areas). Ferns tend to dominate specific humid areas where the environment is less variable between seasons

Generally, many of these communities have persisted as they tend to occur on extreme sites. Changes that have occurred tend to be related to the effects on the flora and fauna species of different hydrological conditions, changes to fire regimes, impacts from feral animals and localised tourism.

Chenopod shrubs, samphire shrubs and forblands

• Overstorey is dominated by a range of hardy low shrub species
• Widespread in the near-estuarine, arid and semi-arid areas and occur generally as extensive flats
• Site conditions tend to affect the type of shrub species that occur within these communities
• In damp and waterlogged areas (e.g. on drainage areas and fringing salt lake areas) samphires dominate the overstorey
• Species in samphire communities include Halosarcia , Salicornia , Sclerostegia and Sarcocornia genera
• Species in chenopod communities are drought and salt tolerant and include the Sclerolaena , Atriplex (salt bush), Maireana (blue bushes, cotton bush), Chenopodium and Rhagodia genera

Generally these communities have remained intact since European settlement. In some cases the communities have increased in extent because of increased salinity and waterlogging. Foremost among threats for coastal occurrences are infilling for urban areas, changes to tidal regimes and isolation from the estuary by roads and infrastructure.

Mangroves, tidal mudflats, samphires, claypans, salt lakes, bare areas, sand, rock, lagoons, freshwater lakes and reservoirs

• Occur over a wide range of site conditions, from near coastal and estuarine to salt lakes and freshwater lakes
• Mangroves vary from extensive tall closed forests communities on Cape York Peninsula to low closed forests or shrublands in southern regions
• Samphires are found in the coastal mudflats and marine plains, adjoining mangrove areas in many instances, but also cover extensive marine plains inland from the southern Gulf of Carpentaria and other parts of the tropical north
• Extensive areas devoid of vegetation can be found as bare ground, either sand dune, claypans or salt lakes in the harsh environments of the arid interior
• Coastal sand masses can often contain extensive areas of bare sands, mostly as active dunes

Widespread clearing or infilling of mangroves and tidal mudflats has occurred in coastal areas near urban major centres for industrial uses or urban developments.

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