Australian Agriculture Assessment 2001
Australian agriculture assessment 2001
National Land and Water Resources Audit, 2001
Appendix 3 - Kandosols
The Kandosol soil order accommodates soils with weak or massive subsoil structure, a clay content of greater than 15% in the B horizon, no strong texture contrast and no carbonate throughout the profile. The soils are often very deep (3.0 m or more). Kandosols may often grade to Dermosols depending on structure grade.
Red Kandosols
Red Kandosols are the most commonly occurring soils of the Kandosol Order. Many are relict in low rainfall regions. A description of a typical Haplic, Eutrophic, Red Kandosol profile is given below.
Environment
Distribution: Red Kandosols are widely distributed throughout Australia except for Victoria and Tasmania and are largely independent of present rainfall.
Climate: Mean annual rainfall generally ranges from 200 mm to 4000 mm.
Parent materials or substrate: A wide range of more acidic igneous and sedimentary rocks and sediments.
Landform: Wide range from extensive level plains to low hills, plateaux and mountains.
Native vegetation: Eucalypt woodlands and open forest are most common.
Land use
Cereal and oilseed cropping in south-east Australia, sugar cane in coastal Queensland and extensive beef cattle grazing of native pasture in monsoonal Australia. Sparse sheep and cattle grazing on the arid lands of the interior.
Common variants
Red Kandosols vary widely in base status and strongly acid dystrophic forms are common across parts of the arid zone where it is assumed that they are relict soils. Soils with a subsoil accumulation of carbonate are also common in arid regions of the continent. In some soils ferromanganiferous nodules may occupy 50% or more of the soil volume by visual estimate.
Nomenclature
Commonly known as Red Earths.
Soil qualities
Water availability: Moderate to high (150 - 350 mm) but generally less in shallower (< 1.5 m) soils.
Drainage: Most are well drained.
Aeration: Well aerated.
Physical root limitations: There are few restrictions to root growth.
Erosion hazard: Severe on slopes in high intensity rainfall areas.
Nutrient availability: Usually low in nitrogen and phosphorus.
Toxicities: Uncommon.
Workability: Surface soil subject to crusting and hardsetting.
Acknowledgment
Photo, soil description and laboratory data from CSIRO Land and Water. Site CP 307.
Typical profile
Wagga district, New South Wales. |
Soil description of a typical profileA11 0-0.08 m Dark reddish brown (5YR 3/2) loam; weak subangular blocky structure; soft consistence; abrupt boundary to: A12 0.08 - 0.15 m Dark reddish brown (5YR 3/3) sandy clay loam; massive structure; abrupt boundary to: B21 0.15 - 0.40 m Dark red (2.5YR 3/6) light clay; massive structure; gradual boundary to: B22 0.40 - 0.60 m Red (2.5YR 4/6) light medium clay; weak polyhedral structure; gradual boundary to: B31 0.60 - 0.75 m Yellowish red (5YR 4/6) medium clay; weak polyhedral structure; gradual boundary to: B31 0.60 – 0.75 m Yellowish red (5YR 4/6) medium clay; weak polyhedral structure; gradual boundary to: B32 0.75 – 0.90 m Strong brown (7.5YR 5/6) medium clay; weak polyhedral structure; 2 – 10% ferromanganiferous nodules and veins; clear boundary to: 2B2 0.90 – 1.20 m+ Yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) weak polyhedral structure; 10 – 20% ferromanganiferous nodules and veins. |
Laboratory data for the typical profile
Yellow Kandosols
The Yellow Kandosols are common soils almost Australia-wide. They grade into the brown and grey forms, sometimes in a catenary-type sequence on gentle slopes. A description of a typical Acidic, Mesotrophic, Yellow Kandosol is given below.
Environment
Distribution: The Yellow Kandosols occupy large areas in eastern, northern and south-west Australia.
Climate: Broad mean annual rainfall range, approximately 300 mm to 1500 mm.
Parent materials or substrate: Siliceous sedimentary rocks and sandy alluvial-colluvial deposits are most common.
Landform: A wide range from gently undulating plains to sandstone plateaux.
Native vegetation: Rainfall dependent and ranging from shrub woodland through open woodland to eucalypt open forest.
Land use
The Yellow Kandosols are used widely for winter cereals and lupins in south-western Australia. Elsewhere they are predominantly used for sparse grazing of native pastures, mainly by beef cattle.
Common variants
The Yellow Kandosols can vary widely in base status and soil reaction. They grade to Tenosols when there is little or no texture increase with depth. Many are mottled and contain high amounts of ferruginous nodules.
Nomenclature
Commonly known as Yellow Earths and Earthy Sands.
Soil qualities
Water availability: Generally moderate to high, less in shallower soils.
Drainage: Range from highly permeable and rapidly drained to soils with impeded drainage due to impermeable underlying layers.
Aeration: Usually well aerated unless impeding layers are present.
Physical root limitations: Excessive nodule content may restrict rooting depth.
Erosion hazard: Risk following clearing and cultivation.
Nutrient availability: Mostly deficient in major and often minor elements.
Toxicities: Mainly aluminium induced by strong acidity.
Workability: Good.
Acknowledgment
Photo and soil description from Agriculture Western Australia. Laboratory data for a typical profile from Grealish and Wagnon (1995), p. 77.
Typical profile
Merredin district, south-west Western Australia |
Soil description of a typical profileMerredin district, south-west Western Australia. Soil description of a typical profileA1 0 – 0.10 m Light brownish grey (10YR 6/2) loamy sand; single grain structure; loose consistence; clear boundary to: B1 0.10 – 0.45 m Yellow (10YR 7/6) sandy loam; massive structure; earthy fabric; diffuse boundary to: B21 0.45 – 1.05 m Yellow (10YR 7/6) sandy loam; massive structure; earthy fabric; 2 – 10% soft ferruginous nodules; very soft consistence; diffuse boundary to: B22 1.05 – 1.20 m Yellow (10YR 7/6) light sandy clay loam; massive structure; earthy fabric; 10 – 20% soft ferruginous nodules; very soft consistence; diffuse boundary to: B23 1.20 – 1.70 m+ Yellow (10YR 7/6) light sandy clay loam; massive structure; earthy fabric; very few soft ferruginous nodules. |
Laboratory data for the typical profile
Brown Kandosols
Brown Kandosols are the second most commonly occurring of the Kandosol Suborders and very deep forms are much less common than in the Red Kandosols Suborder. A description of a typical Acidic, Dystrophic, Brown Kandosolis given below.
Environment
Distribution: The Brown Kandosols mainly occur in Cape York Peninsula, the Top End of the Northern Territory, inland north-east Queensland, parts of the Sydney region and south-west Western Australia.
Climate: Mean annual rainfall range approximately 400 mm to 2000 mm.
Parent materials or substrate: Brown Kandosols commonly form on altered siliceous sedimentary rocks and derived alluvium.
Landform: Generally occur on extensive, level to undulating plains.
Native vegetation: Tall eucalypt forest to low open woodland depending on rainfall.
Land use
Subcoastal, central New South Wales soils are used intensively for horticulture. Elsewhere beef cattle grazing is the most common land use, although some cereals and lupins are grown in south-west Western Australia.
Common variants
The Brown Kandosols can vary widely in base status and soil reaction but this may not necessarily relate to present rainfall. B horizon mottling is a feature of some forms, as is the variable presence of ferromanganiferous nodules, which may exceed 50% by visual estimate.
Nomenclature
Some examples of such soils are known as Yellow Earths.
Soil qualities
Water availability: Generally moderate to high, less in shallower soils.
Drainage: Highly permeable and rapidly drained. Mottled and nodular forms have impeded drainage.
Aeration: Well aerated unless drainage is impeded.
Physical root limitations: Excessive ironstone nodule content may restrict rooting depth.
Erosion hazard: Erosion risk depends on vegetation cover, slope and rainfall intensity and may be severe in the tropics when cultivated.
Nutrient availability: Mostly very deficient in nitrogen and phosphorus.
Toxicities: None known.
Workability: Loamy surface soils subject to crusting and hardsetting.
Acknowledgment
Photo, soil description and laboratory data from CSIRO Land and Water. Site CP 315.
Typical profile
Kulnura district, Sydney Basin, New South Wales. |
Soil description of a typical profileA1 0 – 0.10 m Brown (10YR 4/3) sandy loam; weak subangular blocky structure; very soft consistence; clear boundary to: A3 0.10 – 0.20 m Brown (10YR 4/3) sandy loam; weak subangular blocky structure; soft consistence; gradual boundary to: B1 0.20 – 0.30 m Strong brown (7.5YR 5/8) sandy clay loam; massive structure; soft consistence; diffuse boundary to: B22 0.30 – 1.00 m Strong brown (7.5YR 5/8) sandy clay loam; massive structure; very soft consistence; diffuse boundary to: B3 1.00 – 1.40 m Reddish yellow (7.5YR 6/8) sandy clay loam; massive structure; very soft consistence. |
Laboratory data for the typical profile
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